1. If "h", "w" separate two consonants with the same soundex code, change consonants to right of the (前の)vowel into "h" until they have the same soundex code
2. Replace consonants with digits as follows (but do not change the first letter):
   • b, f, p, v => 1 --- Grimm's Lawのpの行グループ対応
   • c, g, j, k, q, s, x, z => 2　--- Grimm's Lawのkの行グループ対応
   • d, t => 3 --- Grimm's Lawのtの行グループ対応
   • l => 4
   • m, n => 5
   • r　=> 6
3. Collapse adjacent隣 接した identical同一 digits into a single digit of that value.
4. Remove all non-digits after the first letter.
5. Return the starting letter and the first three remaining digits. If needed, append zeroes to make it a letter and three digits.

Using this algorithm, both "Robert" and "Rupert" return the same string "R163" while "Rubin" yields "R150". "Ashcraft" yields "A261".

(サンプル解説:
Ashcraft ⇒ 同一soundex のs(=2),c(=2)の間にhがあるので、手前の母音Aの右のsをhに変える、 ⇒ Ahhcraft ⇒ digits化 ⇒ Ahh26a13 ⇒ A2613 ⇒ A261。
Hititte(ヒッタイト) =Hi3i33e =Hi3i3e =H33 =H330。
稗田 = Hieda=Hie3a =H3 =H300。.... 稗田阿礼(ひえだのあれ)≒ヒッタイトのあれ　　≒鉄器?!)

It would be perfectly reasonable to call a Greek policeman a platypus (flatfoot扁平足), although perhaps not to his face. All the current meanings of plant go back to the original sense of (flat) bottom of the foot, now seen in its literal sense only in plantar warts, the plantar fascia that connects the heel to the ball of the foot, and the zoological term plantigrade, describing animals like bears and humans that walk flat-footed with the heels touching the ground. (The opposite is digitigrade, walking on the toes like horses, dogs, cats, etc. The only digitigrade primate species is the human female ballet dancer.) To "plant" something originally meant to tramp down the ground after placing a seed or seedling, and that sense is still felt in phrases like "feet firmly planted".

Poland is one of Plato's cousins, since polye means "field" in Slavic, and the country is predominantly flat farmland. Navigators call an area of open water in arctic pack ice a polynya, from Russian.
The dance called a polka, however, apparently is not related to the country, even though the Polish words for themselves are a Polak (male) and a Polka (female). The dance is of Bohemian origin, not Polish, and the name seems to be from Czech pulka, which means "half", presumably from the short quick steps characteristic of the polka. (This does not mean, however, that a polka is the same as a minuet, also named for its small steps.) There was a large craze 大流行 for the polka in the late 19th Century, leading to polka hats, polka dresses, etc., of which the only remainder is polka dotted fabric. Another dance really does mean "Polish", however — the polonaise.

The original meaning of deduce 推論・演繹 in English was to lead forth, as in "Moses deduced the Children of Israel.モーゼはイスラエルの民を導いた" It also meant to inherit継承する — "He deduced his fortune from his auntおば." The sense of to solve a problem by reason is later. Note that the "draw out" sense still exists in deduct, and a deduction can be either a financial withdrawal or a logical derivation誘導. (Derive引 き出す・派生する has much the same change in meaning; it originally meant to divertそらす a stream into a particular channel水路, from the root also seen in river. 川)

Another /T/-to-/TH/ change is seen in the ten- root which means to stretch. This gave Latin words like tense張 りつめた、緊張の, tent(キャンプなどの)テント、天幕, extend伸ばす (stretch out), distendふ くらます (stretch apart, expand), etc. --------
also seen in Latin extenuate(罪などを)軽減する (thin out), tenuous細い、薄い、希薄な, attenuate細 く[薄く]する、弱くする、希薄にする, etc. The tenterhooks張り枠のクギ one is stretched on are a metaphor隠喩(隠れた例え/比喩) from weaving機織、蜘蛛の巣, where they are attached to the selvage(織物の)耳 to stretch cloth into shape. From Greek are the geometric幾何学の hypotenuse直 角三角形の斜辺 "stretched under" a right angle直角 (c.f. Latin subtend内 在する、範囲を占める), the "stretched out" antennaアンテナ、触角、空中線 (originally a nautical航海の word for a sail帆 boom帆げた, then the insect昆虫の part一部分, before arriving at the radio sense その後、ラジオのアンテナの意味が到来した), and both the musical音楽 tone音 の調子、音程 (from a stretched string) andと muscle筋肉、筋の tone音程 (tautness調律). [24Jul08] (Tone came to mean "general good health", which is maintained by a tonic強 壮剤. Greek catatonia【医】緊張病 is when the mind's tone心の調子が has "fallen down落ち込む".) Intense激しい、強烈な means "stretched tight固く、しっかりと、ピンと、タイトに", while一方 intendす るつもりである、意図有り isの方は to "stretch toward　の方に向かって伸びる" something. Interestingly面白いことに, "to pretendふ りをする" is literally言葉的には "to stretch forward前方へ伸びる." The original meaning was to make a claim苦情・請求・懇願, and the figure is that of someone holding out their proof at arm's lengthこれは、腕の全長さを前に差し出して、自分達の保護を求めている人の姿・形なんです。. The only remnant名残 of thisこの sense意味 is the pretender偽 善者、装う人、(正当な権利無く)王位を要求する人 to a throne王位、玉座, i.e., claimant要求者、主張者、起訴者. The current usage is for the original "false pretender." See the discussion of the tenured(財産・地位などの)保有された tenor行路、行程 earlier in this document for more relatives where the root meaning was extended拡 張された [I'm sorry…] toへ "hold保持する". Also note that "pretend" has a very close relative in ostentatious見せびらかしの、見栄を張る, from Latin obs-tendere, to stretch out in front, i.e., to show something off. [25Apr08] On the other hand, "pretend" is not related to pretext 口実— see the texture/technical family for that one. Attend参 加する、付添いをする is "stretch toward", originally in the Latin phrase attendere animum, to stretch the mind toward, i.e., to pay attention注 意 or be attentive注意深い、傾聴する. Attain達 成する、遂げる looks like it might be related, but not so — it is a tangere "touch触る" word.

[29Mar08] The human species is known as homo sapiens. This is usually translated as "wise man", but it literally means "man who can taste" — Latin sapere means to taste. From "able to taste" it developed into "able to distinguish or perceive" and then into "able to understand". In English, sapient now means "wise" but once meant "tasty". Savory味 の良い、風味の良い still has the original sense, and its opposite is insipid, without taste. Another "understand" relative is savant学 者, while savvy理解力 is French savez[-vous] or Spanish sabe [usted], take your choice, Sage賢 人, showing wisdom, is definitely French. (The herb that goes with parsley, rosemary, and thyme isn't related, though,)

[26Nov08] Latin for "have" is habere, but Grimm's Law says that despite the similarity, Germanic have can't be related, and it isn't. Have is actually a member of the kap- (seize) family that includes captive and capture, as mentioned elsewhere.

[29Mar08] I guess I should point out that reciprocal相 互の is a Latin blend of the prefixes re- and pro-, so it literally means "back and forth". In early use the word was particularly applied to the tides潮.

Certain people whose knowledge of classical languages is somewhat limited object to "homosexual" being used to describe female behavior, on grounds that the Latin word obviously applied only to men. Unfortunately, the first part is really Greek homo-, "same", which is therefore perfectly appropriate to same-sex preference by either males or females. On the same general subject, for the last 2,500 years certain Greeks have been afflicted by the double sense of "Lesbian" — a resident of the Aegean island of Lesbos, or a female homosexual. This is due to the island's most famous citizen, the poet Sappho, who among her many works wrote some love lyrics to women. Considering that the Greeks didn't think much of women, it is ironic that Sappho was so well-remembered that her alleged preferences led to two English words — lesbian and sapphic. They both have double senses, actually, because a professor of literature will use "a sapphic" to refer to a poem in the verse form she invented, independent of content.

[30Apr08] In today's news there is a report that some citizens of Lesbos are suing the Greek Gay and Lesbian Association for defamation. Certainly took them long enough. [08Aug08] Not surprisingly, the Greek court threw out the suit. (Presumably it's also far too late for the Welsh to sue people for using "welshing on a debt", for the Dutch to complain about "Dutch treat", for the Bulgarians to get uptight about the practice of buggering, and for the Gypsies to try and eliminate the verb "to gyp", q.v.)

Speaking of poets, etc., the first recorded instance of butch to mean a tough boy or man is as the nickname of George Cassidy in 1902. It's probably shortened from "butcher". The sense of a mannish lesbian, the opposite of femme, dates from about 1950.

The Old English -wise の様な、〜風 in words such as likewise and otherwise means "manner" or "style" — originally they followed a preposition: "in like wise," i.e. in like manner. This is the same word as guise見 せかけ、ふり, still used in phrases like, "He was in the guise [style] of a soldier", although it is now more common in the compound複合語 disguise変 装, that is, a different style. Back a ways, I mentioned the various "wal-" words meaning foreigner, at least as seen by Germanic speakers. Gaul (and the Galatians) and the Kelts are other members of that family, implying that, like Slav/Slave, the words were taken from the foreigners' name for themselves.

Captain general, attorney general, surgeon general, and most other phrases where the adjective follows the noun (e.g. court martial), are relics of French legal, military, or culinary terms, and all still show their origin by their plurals — attorneys general, courts martial, etc. More examples are body politic, sergeant major, knight errant, church militant, battle royal, and many foodstuffs like beef Wellington, steak tartare, and eggplant Parmesan. C.f. mothers-in-law and "backwards" geographic terms like the River Thames and Mount Baker. Since Washington, Alberta and Uganda all have peaks so-named, the world has at least three Mounts Baker. If, God forbid, the capital of Louisiana ever got cloned, the state would be afflicted with Batons Rouge.

Greek - gon (bend or angle角度, as in pentagonペンタゴン、米国防省(建物が五角 形) or diagonal対角線(の)) .
Latin genuflect is literally "bend (flex) the knee." Proceeding down the leg, Latin angle itself is of course Germanic ankle足首・くるぶし, and going the other direction, one arrives at the Germanic knuckle. Actually, there's probably a third "angle" body part, the chinあ ご. An anchorアンカー・イカリ (once spelled "anker" like it sounds) is another notably bent object. Note that these examples imply that the /K/ in knee, knuckle, etc. used to be pronounced, which of course it was.

• Deaf, which originally meant blind, is a possible relative. --- smokyで真っ暗闇
• Kelticケルト語 dun- means "dark brown",
  leading to the dun color and personal names like Duncan (brown head).
• In Latin, the root became fumeフュー ム・(匂いの強い)煙/蒸気/排気ガス, and to obfuscate[AA1 B F AH0 S K EY2 T]ぼかす、分かりにくくする
  something means to throw up a smoke screen.
• The root extended its meaning to "breath",
  leading to deer, once any [breathing] animal as mentioned above. (C.f. Latin animal, from anima, breath.)

It seems obvious that theos, the Greek word for god (theology神学 = study of god, atheism無神論 = no god, etc.) must be the same word as Latin deus, but it ain't so. The Latin mutation突然変異 of Greek theo- is really fa- as in fanatic狂信的な (possessed by a god神に取り付かれた), profane神聖 を汚す・ぼうとくの (outside the temple), fair定期市、縁日 (held on a holy day), feast祭日、ご馳走 and its derivatives festivalお祭り and festive祝祭の、にぎやかな, etc.,

while deus is from another IE root meaning "to shine"輝く. (See the above discussion of Easter for more "shine" words.) Deusゼウス, divine神 の、神聖な, deity神性, and the Germanic god Tiwチ ウ (whose day is Tuesday火曜日) are from the "sun god太陽の神" senseの意味, while dismal陰気な (literally, "bad day"), dialダイヤル (originally the sundial日時計), dawn夜明け (literally, "daying日中"), and maybe dietダ イェット・食事制限 are from the "day日" sense, all through Latin and/or French. Astronomers天文学者達 have decided that, to avoid confusion, "day日" should apply only to the Earth, and that a rising and setting of the sun on some other body should be called a sol太陽. This word has been familiarized recently in connection with the Mars landers. [08Oct08] (This only works inside our solar systemソーラー・システム(太陽系); I have no idea what will happen with the planets of other stars.)

To almost everyone else's astonishment, the experts are unanimous that Germanic "day" itself is not a member of this group, but that the resemblance is pure coincidence! The Germanic word god itself is somewhat obscure but seems to be from an IE root hut- (see previous item for H-to-G) that means to call or invoke祈願する. For example, in Sanskrit the word puruhutu (much-invoked) is often used as an epithet形容語句 of a god or goddess. There is a minority view that god is actually from an IE root that meant to pour [a libation神酒、みき]. As an aside, many people would agree that the most appropriate scientific name ever given to a chemical is that of the caffeine-like active ingredient成分 in chocolate. It is called theobromine【化】テオブロミン, "food of the gods神々の食べ物".

The voiceless /TH/ sound heard in thick and thin serves as a real trap for non-native speakers of English, because it is a surprisingly rare sound in the world's languages. It existed in proto-Germanic, but now is found only in English and Icelandic. The sound also exists in Semitic and as mentioned above, Greek, and that's about it. Speakers of German, Slavic, the Indo-Iranian and Romance families, and most non-IE languages tend to pronounce "thin" as "tin" or "sin" (and voiced /TH/ as in these and those as "deze" and "doze" or "zeze" and "zoze") unless they've had a lot of practice. Note that German had a /TH/ spelling, but the sound was hard-/T/, as mentioned before in the discussion of "thal", pronounced "tall", German for valley. Recently German authorities have begun a campaign to "rationalize" the language with a /T/ spelling instead (Neandertalネアンデルタール, etc.) [04Sep08] Goth and Lithuania used to be spelled with a /T/ and are so pronounced, but I don't know if they will be victims of the spelling police. Castilian Spanish also has a /TH/ sound, because that's the way they pronounce /S/ — they all have a bad lithp.

Unvoiced /TH/ is thus a literal shibbolethシュィ バレス, from the Bible story (Judges, chapter 12) of the Israelites picking that word (which means "stream") as a password in some battle with enemies who could not pronounce unvoiced /SH/ or /TH/ — anyone who claimed the password was "sibbolet" was immediately killed. Similarly, Italians have been known to use ciceraチチェーラ, literally "chick-pea", to sort out Frenchmen, who do not have a hard /CH/. (The Roman author Ciceroキケロ was a nickname — he had a big wartいぼ on his nose.) Allegedly, US soldiers in the Pacific theater in WW II used lollapalooza ロラッパルーザ、【米俗】驚くべきもの［人］("remarkable or wonderful person or thing," 1904 (lallapalootza), ) as a word impossible for the Japanese. Aladdin'sアラジンの "Open sesame 開けゴマ" password from the Arabian Nights might be another one; in Arabic the pronunciation is "sheshame". There are two notoriously difficult tongue-twisters: "The sixth sheik's sixth sheep's sick," and "The Leith police dismisseth us." If you think you have trouble saying them correctly, try them on any (former) friend whose mother tongue is not English!

The rarity of the /TH/ sound is the reason why it is spelled with a digraph二文字表記 in English. Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic all have a /TH/ letter — /θ/ (theta) is the Greek version — and so did Old and Middle English — //, called thorn(と げ). [03Sep08] (Just as "alphabet" is Greek alpha-beta, the runicルーン文字の、古代北欧人の alphabet is called the futhorc, from the first six letters.   : ) Unfortunately, the technology of printing developed on the continent among Germans, Dutch, and Italians who did not have that sound, and so the type fonts imported to start the English printing industry had to make do with the "continental大陸風" letter set. For a while, it was customary to replace a thorn with a /Y/ in printed text because the handwritten versions of the two looked somewhat the same, leading to the well-known ye for "the", as in Ye Olde Curiosity Shop. (That "Ye" is pronounced "the", please note!) Eventually the printers gave up the fight and started using /TH/, the digraph which the Romans had used to express Greek theta, a sound not in the Roman alphabet either. Thorns were still common in handwriting as late as Shakespeare, however, and not only y^e but also y^s, y^t, yⁿ, y^ei were commonly used for "this", "that", "then", "they", etc. well into the 1700's. This must have been confusing for foreigners who didn't know the trick, since in abbreviations like "yrs" for "yours" (yrs truly) it really was a /Y/, and "ye" could either be the alternate form of "the" or the second person plural personal pronoun! [06Aug08] (Icelandic is a quite archaic language, and it still retains the thorn character in print.)

[16Sep08] English has a few peculiar独特の family names with an initial lower-case /ff/ — ffolkes, ffyfe, and so on. The authorities are agreed this is from a misreading of the Old English handwritten capital /F/, which looked like a ligature of two lower-case /f/'s — . These days one occasionally sees such names written with an initial capital — notably the comic writer Jasper Ffordes — but that is illiterate教養の無い.

Another Old English letter not present in the continental type fonts was the yogh — // — used for the semi-vowel /Y/ sound before another vowel. Think of "pure" compared to "poor". That little /Y/ in pure is the remains of a yogh. By Renaissance times it only was used in Scots and Northern English, and early printers replaced it with continental /Z/, again from the appearance. This practice led to its presence in northern names like Mackenzie, which is correctly pronounced "Mackenyie", and Dalziel, pronounced "Dalyell". Menzies should be pronounced "Menyies", but casual English pronunciation usually makes it sound more like "Mingus". The actor Denzel Washington's name is simply the northern spelling of "Daniel" and, in theory, should be so pronounced. (C.f. the many words pronounced with a short-/E/ in America and a short-/A/ in England when followed by an /R/, such as derby, clerk, etc. In some cases America has also adopted the short-/A/ — sergeant, the doublet person/parson, and the fact that darling started life as "dearling".)

Eventually, some words with a yogh were re-spelled to use /I/ or /Y/ instead (e.g., year and eye were originally er and ee) or it was simply dropped. The a- in front of verbs (alight, awake, abide, etc.) was once e-; c.f. German verbs with ge-. Americans and Irish often drop the sound itself in words where the English do not. For example, American "dew", "due", and "do" are homophones, but in England the first two are pronounced "dyoo"Latin /K/ is Germanic /H/. The proper British pronunciation of duke is "dyook", rhyming with "puke". The American version, rhyming with "kook", is distinctly low-class in Britain. (The English novelist Georgette Heyer consistently used the spellings "dook", "stoopid", etc. when reproducing the speech of working-class characters, which probably puzzles her American readers.)

Note that half the Mackenzie clan surrendered to the Sassenachs and now pronounce their own name the way it looks to the English, while the other half re-spelled it to be Mackinney to keep the proper Scots pronunciation. This is by no means uncommon — taking another example from a different letter and language, it's quite possible that Sir Mick Jagger and Chuck Yeager are distant cousins, with one branch of the family retaining the German pronunciation of Jaeger through re-spelling, and the other surrendering and going with standard English pronunciation of /J/. Many Youngs, Youngdahls, etc. used to be "Jung-". My wife's maiden name is Caylor, which is certainly a phonetic re-spelling of Koehler (Khler) to keep people from pronouncing it "Coaler".

Certain people who should be world-famous are obscure because of pronunciation difficulties — c.f. Ignacy Lukasiewicz (Wook-a-shave-its), a famous mathematician who devised the so-called "Polish notationポーランド記法". If she received her PhD today, Dr. Maria Dolega-Sklodowska (Dowenga-SklawDAWFskah) would probably keep her maiden name for professional purposes. If so, she would be far less remembered by generations of science students, but fortunately for them, she meekly adopted the pronounceable name of her husband Pierre Curie, even though she got two Nobel Prizes and he only got one. [27Oct08] Astrophysicists honor Bohdan Paczynski, the expert on the formation of supermassive black holes, by calling the torus of hot interstellar gas spiralling into a black hole a "Polish Doughnut".

Switching from Poles to Greeks, consider the great painter who was known as El Greco because Domenikos Theotokopoulos did not fall gracefully on Spanish ears. (He was born in Crete, actually, but from Spain I guess that was close enough.) The electronic music composer Vangelis would undoubtedly be less famous if his movie scores were credited to Evangelos Odysseas Papathanassiou. The test for cervical cancer is called the Pap Test, short for Dr. Georgios Papanikolaou, the Greek physician who invented it.

[20Feb08] While on the subject of human anatomy, a whole lot more women know about the G Spot than know about the German gynecologist Ernst Grfenburg who first described it. Similarly, everybody knows about the ubiquitous E. coli bacterium, but nobody remembers the 19th century German bacteriologist and pediatrician Theodor Escherich who discovered it. (Despite the headlines, unless you have a few billion E. coli in your gut, you die. The bug is the body's source of several essential vitamins.)

NASA calls their X-ray orbital telescope the Chandra observatory, named for the Indian-American astrophysicist and Nobel laureate Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. (In an interesting combination of heredity and environment, Chandrasekhar literally was raised from birth to be a Nobel Prize winner. He was a nephew of the Nobel-winning physicist Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, and Chandra's mother was fiercely determined that her child would out-do his brilliant uncle.)

I wonder if these men and women were compensated by getting less unwanted telephone calls — I certainly can visualize a poor solicitor seeing such a name come up on his or her computer monitor and quickly clicking to the next entry. Names don't even have to be long — I know someone named Chudej, which has the property (for non-Czechs, at least) that if you see it, you can't pronounce it, and if you hear it, you can't find it in the telephone book. The pronunciation is "Hoo-jay", more or less. That reminds me of the joke that the pterodactyl is obviously an Irish animal, either "Peter O'Dactill" or "Terry Dactill" depending on whether the user has read the word or heard it pronounced.Latin /K/ is Germanic /H/

Similarly, I'm sure the Welsh keep place names like Rhosllanerchrugog, Gwyddelwern, Llanymawdowy, and the grand champions, Gorsafawddachaidraigodanheddogleddolonpenrhynareurdraethceredigion and LLanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch, just to irritate and embarrass the English. That last is even too much for the Welsh, who, I have heard, usually say "Llanfair PG". (As an aside, Welsh is certainly the only language which can have four consecutive /L/'s. The reason for all those -llan- syllables in place names is that it means "church" in Welsh.) I'm told that some Welshmen won't admit they are fluent in English until the tourist reassures them they are from the USA, Australia, or Canada rather than from England. All things considered, this is certainly an easier feat than an anglophone trying to extract English from a perfectly-bilingual resident of Montreal.

Long words in themselves are not particularly difficult if the reader knows the language. English speakers touring Germany soon become accustomed to signs like haptbahnhofparkplatzeinfahrt and automatically break the monster into its components: haupt (high), bahn ([rail]road), hof (hall), park (same as English), platz (plaza, place), ein (in), and fahrt (fare, travel). Thus we have the "high-railroad-hall-park-place-in-travel", the main railroad station parking lot entrance. (Many other languages get just as bemused当惑する by the English habit of long noun phrases like that one — a "college Division One June 2006 baseball World Series home plate umpire chest protector strap" has fifteen consecutive連続する nouns, but gramatically fourteen of them act as modifiers to "strap".)

There is at least one grammatical construction where English goes so far as to treat an entire phrase as a single word, namely when adding a possessive. Consider the phrase "the Secretary of State's limousine". The position of that /'s/ only makes sense if "secretary-of-state" is regarded as one word. This doesn't happen with the only other remaining English noun inflection語尾変化, the plural. Two of the breed品種 are "Secretaries of State", not "Secretary of States".

Most other Indo-European consonants, — /L/, /M/, /N/, /R/, and /S/ in particular — were not affected by Grimm's Law. Observe that all these are the "extended" consonants — those that can be drawn out for a long time. (Mmmmmm…, ssssss…, etc.) Grimm's Law seems to have only affected the "plosive破裂音" sounds that cannot be prolonged.

The early philologists found quite a few exceptions to Grimm's Law — Germanic words where a consonant did not change as expected. Eventually it was realized that there was a secondary principle, now called Verner's Law, that applied when the consonant in question was in certain positions relative to the stressed syllable of a word. This had been masked because the stress of a proto-Germanic word was not necessarily on the same syllable as that of its modern descendants, and is one of the reasons that most of my examples so far have been at the beginning of words, where Grimm's Law always applies no matter where the accent falls. A few examples showing where Vernor over-ruled Grimm are Latin septem to English seven (instead of "sethem"), Latin centum to English hundred (instead of "hunthred"), and the variations between lose/lorn, raise/rear, dead/death, etc. The -kyr- in valkyrie, from the same root as choose, is another Vernor's Law substitution. This is complicated by the fact that since most Germanic languages were heavily inflected, Verner's Law might cause different forms of the same word to be spelled differently — the added endings changed the syllable count and the stress.

No one knows why proto-Germanic changed in this way from the parent Indo-European, although other languages have undergone similar but less drastic systematic shifts, a few of which are discussed in the original next sections.